Date of Award

Summer 6-16-2025

Level of Access Assigned by Author

Open-Access Thesis

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Department

Ecology and Environmental Sciences

First Committee Advisor

Joseph Zydlewski

Second Committee Member

Carly Sponarski

Third Committee Member

Kristina Cammen

Additional Committee Members

Adam Daigneault

Danielle Frechette

(Note: Joseph Zydlewski and Carly Sponarski served as co-advisors)

Abstract

Marine environments provide essential habitat to a wide range of species, including migratory fish and marine mammals. Though these species exhibit diverse life histories they share a common thread. Diadromous fish and marine mammals have suffered dramatic declines from climate change, pollution, exploitation, by-catch, and other anthropogenic threats. Centuries of species exploitation and depletion have resulted in low populations over the course of multiple human generations and disconnected current human populations from natural population sizes and habitat use. Protected species management is a fundamental component of the North American wildlife management model. The Endangered Species (ESA) and the Marine Mammal Protection Acts (MMPA) have served as the backbone of conservation in the United States since the 1970’s when both landmark protectionist acts were passed. Both Acts aim to increase populations of protected species. However, increased population sizes are only part of the criteria that wildlife management agencies need to evaluate to assess success. The MMPA and ESA are not designed to address complex socioecological issues, in part, because these Acts expressly prohibit the use of some political, economic, or social factors in conservation planning and listing decisions. Alone, these acts may aid in increasing populations, but they may also create new conflicts with human populations and new threats to target species.

To address these emerging issues, species conservation and planning may benefit from incorporating multiple disciplines and perspectives for a more holistic approach. Ecological restoration has traditionally been approached through a natural science lens; however, the concept has since evolved to include a social lens as well. This dissertation examines the social dimensions of protected species conservation through four interconnected studies conducted between 2020 and 2024. The central question explores how social factors influence conservation program implementation and effectiveness beyond biological considerations. Using mixed-methods approaches which combine network analysis, survey research, and expert elicitation, we investigated collaborative governance structures, public perceptions of conservation approaches, agency resource allocation, and human-wildlife interaction patterns.

Chapter One analyzes communication networks and collaborative efficacy within Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) management systems in Maine. Maine is home to the last wild population of sea-run Atlantic salmon in the United States. The critically endangered Gulf of Maine Distinct Population Segment of Atlantic salmon (DPS) has been managed under multiple joint-jurisdictional systems involving federal, state, and tribal entities since at least 1980. Collaborative governance structures (CGS) have been increasingly adopted to address joint-jurisdictional management challenges. While the establishment of CGSs has been widely studied, their practical development has remained a conspicuous gap. CGSs are variable systems with several developmental stages which eventually lead to stabilization, decline, recreation, or re-orientation.

CGSs in decline may need to revisit earlier developmental stages if members choose to recreate or reorient the structure. Building upon earlier research on the previous Atlantic salmon CGS, the Atlantic Salmon Recovery Framework (ASRF), we conducted a communication network analysis and program evaluation of the newly formed Collaborative Management Strategy (CMS) to determine if restructuring addressed existing collaborative concerns. Our research revealed that while the transition from the ASRF to the CMS improved representation, persistent membership confusion hindered decision-making processes. The CMS has highly networked communication pathways but has been variably successful in meeting participant expectations. The changes that occurred between the ASRF and the CMS constitute a recreation of the CGS. The issues observed in the CMS may result from a misalignment between participant expectations and the current developmental stage of the recreated CGS.

Chapter Two builds upon a proposal for a novel conservation program for Atlantic salmon identified through the CMS. Since listing, hatchery supplementation programs have been the primary conservation strategy for the DPS, yet extirpation remains an immediate threat. The managing partners have agreed that although hatchery supplementation has prevented extirpation, recovery may require innovative approaches. Considering this, the managing entities partnered with a commercial aquaculture company to employ a novel marine aquaculture conservation program which would use aquaculture techniques to raise native Atlantic salmon smolts to maturity in estuarine net pens before releasing reproductively mature fish into high quality, underutilized spawning habitats. The proposed program would mark a major shift in management and has generated mixed public reactions.

Our research team surveyed residents in four Downeast Maine towns near the proposed net pen location and found that those living in closer proximity to the site were less accepting of the program. We found that local community members believed the program would not be supported in their community but that attitudes toward marine conservation aquaculture and the proposed program were generally positive. This combination suggests that social factors like deeply rooted sense of place, place-based identity preservation, and community social norms may be more indicative of program support (or lack thereof) than perceptions of program impacts or efficacy. Community dynamics are complex and often require long-term participatory research approaches to disentangle, indicating that further research could better inform conversations about the utility of marine conservation aquaculture as a conservation tool.

Chapters Three and Four focus on the social aspects of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) marine mammal management program. In the United States, all marine mammals, regardless of populations size or status, are protected under the MMPA. Using expert elicitation techniques with NOAA employees across the country we evaluated the composition of agency investment in addressing human-marine mammal interactions (HMMI) and characterized the scope and scale of HMMI. While take of marine mammals is now prohibited under the MMPA, NOAA still dedicates significant time and resources to mitigating HMMI. Through this research we identified misalignments between job descriptions and actual time allocation, with biological and policy tasks dominating while social science capacity and outreach were identified as critical needs. As human populations continue to grow and exploit marine environments, opportunities for HMMI have increased. Additionally, as agency resources fail to keep up with growing needs for conservation effort, many agencies find themselves struggling to adequately meet social and legal requirements.

The MMPA has successfully prevented the extinction of all marine mammals in United States waters since its implementation in 1972, with many species experiencing significant population recovery. However, this conservation success has created new challenges as recovering populations increasingly interact with humans in coastal environments. Our results reveal distinct regional patterns in HMMI that vary by taxonomic group, interaction type, and human user group and highlight the complex interplay between shifting baselines and social carrying capacity, where generations with no memory of historical marine mammal abundance perceive recovering populations as unprecedented. These cognitive biases may result in antagonistic interactions with protected species and jeopardize conservation efforts.

This dissertation demonstrates that effective conservation requires attention not only to biological factors but also to governance structures, community perceptions, agency resource allocation, and human-wildlife interaction patterns. The findings offer practical insights for conservation practitioners seeking to improve program efficacy through enhanced social consideration, collaborative approaches, and strategic resource allocation. This work contributes to a more integrated understanding of conservation that acknowledges the complex interplay between social and ecological systems.

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